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How to determine if a student is at-risk
is not an easy task. Educators, policy makers and the general public debate
over what makes a student at-risk
and what role schools, families and students themselves play in this process.
Presently, there are four approaches used by schools and policy makers
to define at-risk students. These are the predictive,
descriptive,
unilateral,
and
school factors approaches
(Hixson & Tinzmann, 1990). Each of these approaches has its disadvantages
and, recently, educators have looked at a new approach called the "ecological"
approach (Hixson & Tinzmann, 1990). This approach takes the blame away
from the student and family and sees education as a process that is also
confined by society. It sees education as affected by
There are a number of hypertext programs that serve the at-risk students. These programs provide an important social prop as students do not have to contend with the stigma of being "dumb", afraid to ask questions or ask for help (McCullough, 1992). Students learn to work at their own pace in a non-threatening and a non-embarrassing environment. In one English course called Cyber English, at-risk students are placed in heterogeneous groups. Students of varying abilities are somewhat equalized in this environment where the teacher has laid out his course so that a student can come to class, check his e-mail for special messages from his teacher, and then go to his menu. From there, the student can choose which assignment to work on that day. This type of environment is different from anything the student has experienced in school, and everyone comes into this course as a beginner. The student uses e-mail to communicate to the teacher and other students about class assignments. All assignments are posted on the World Wide Web, and can be accessed through the high school's Web site. The students create their own layout, graphics, design, color, font and presentation. Students also integrate links to the Web sites from which they obtained their information. Many of the suggested advantages of hypertext are based on its ability
to support individual differences in learners. Jonassen (1996) argued that
hypertext allows readers with different interests, learning styles, and
information needs to determine their own sequence of interaction with a
text. Lee (1992) suggested that a hypertext presentation can be structured
to simultaneously support learners who need a structured and linear progression,
and learners with a less structured learning style who synthesize information
while jumping from one path to another (Rourke & Lysynchuk, n.d.).
Melara (1996) suggested that hypertext can support active learners who
like to browse through material after they complete a reading, and reflective
learners who prefer to ponder what they have read. Research suggests that
all learners can benefit in a hypertext environment.
Brandjes (1997) states that "students who learn the necessary skills for designing and composing hypertext not only become competitive in terms of future job opportunities, but they also acquire the skills needed to publish their writing on the Web. This inspires them to work harder, ask more questions, and revise their work more often"( Brandjes, 1997, Section 1, para.1). Hypertext helps students to discover meaning by engaging in critical thinking (Jonassen, Myers & McKillop, 1996). Research also supports hypertext as an effective instructional tool. Jonassen (1996) describes Lehler's research in which grade eight students of low ability were able to make connections and gain more than they would have in a more passive learning role. Teachers are incorporating a variety of hypermedia to stimulate and
support the writing process in their classroom. Many teachers are using
computer software which can link text, visual imagery, sound effects and
music in a hyper-media presentation. These practices, which capitalize
on students' unique abilities, and interests, can be very powerful
for students with learning problems. Means, Blando, Olson, Middleton, Morocco,
Remz, et al. (1993) note that "technology can engage students in authentic
learning".
Teachers can draw on technology applications to stimulate real-world
The capability of designing a hypertext
environment in which users follow paths according to their background and
understanding, gives teachers an effective tool for individualizing instruction
to meet student needs ( McLellan, 1992). Research suggests that learners
who are taught by their preferred method achieve better, were more interested
in the subject matter, liked the way the subject was taught, and wanted
other instructional situations to be taught in a similar matter (Smith
& Renzerili, 1984). When a teacher understands the learning
style of the student, the student's cognitive learning is increased
and the student is encouraged to become more involved in the learning process.
It is evident that hypermedia has the potential to offer students opportunites
to learn at a different pace, to choose how much learning can take place
and to be in control of their learning. This can be effective in providing
learning to our
diverse student population.
Examples of hypertext programs that help to inspire at-risk students
to write are Sim City,
Hypertext and hypermedia is often considered an assitive technology
for students with learning disabilities
because they replace the rigid, linear organization of earlier computer
programs (McCullough, 1995). Because LD students process information
in individualistic, non-linear ways, hypertext and hypermedia systems can
provide students with the cognitive flexibility they need to explore knowledge
in a way which makes sense to them.
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